Sixth Grade Social Studies: Origins, Expansion, and Legalization of Christianity
Born in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, Christianity evolved from an outlawed Jewish sect into the official state religion of Rome.
The Historical and Religious Setting of Judea
During the first century BCE, the Kingdom of Judea was conquered by Roman legions under Pompey the Great in 63 BCE. By the early first century CE, Rome ruled Judea through a combination of client monarchs, such as King Herod the Great, and Roman equestrian governors, termed prefects or procurators (including Pontius Pilate).
Messianic Expectations and Sectarian Division
Under Roman military occupation, Jewish society was divided over how to respond to foreign pagan rule.
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| JEWISH SECTS UNDER ROMAN OCCUPATION |
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| SADDUCEES | Wealthy priestly aristocracy; collaborated with |
| | Roman authorities; controlled Temple in Jerusalem;|
| | rejected belief in bodily resurrection. |
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| PHARISEES | Strict teachers of Mosaic Law and oral traditions;|
| | emphasized personal piety; believed in afterlife |
| | and the coming of a liberating Messiah (*Mashiach*).|
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| ESSENES | Monastic ascetics who withdrew into desert caves |
| | at Qumran; authored the Dead Sea Scrolls. |
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| ZEALOTS | Radical militarists who advocated violent armed |
| | rebellion to expel Roman legions from Judea. |
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Across Judea, anticipation grew for the arrival of the Messiah (Mashiach, meaning "the Anointed One"), an anointed leader from the royal line of David whom many believed would liberate Israel from foreign oppression, restore the Davidic kingdom, and usher in universal peace.
The Life and Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth
Christianity centers on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE–30/33 CE), whose life is recorded in the four canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) of the New Testament.
The Ministry in Galilee
Raised in the village of Nazareth in Galilee, Jesus worked as a carpenter (tekton) before beginning his public ministry around age thirty, following his baptism in the Jordan River by John the Baptist. Traveling through rural villages with twelve chosen disciples (the Apostles), Jesus taught in synagogues, open hillsides, and fishing boats, healing the sick and preaching the imminent arrival of the "Kingdom of God."
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| THE CORE TEACHINGS OF JESUS |
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| 1. RADICAL LOVE: Love God with all your heart, and love your neighbor |
| as yourself; forgive enemies and pray for persecutors. |
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| 2. THE SERMON ON THE MOUNT (The Beatitudes): |
| Blessed are the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, and the |
| peacemakers, for they shall inherit the earth and see God. |
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| 3. PARABLES: Taught moral truth through everyday stories (The Good |
| Samaritan, The Prodigal Son, The Sower). |
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| 4. REVERSAL OF VALUES: "The first shall be last, and the last first." |
| True greatness lies in humble service to others, not earthly power.|
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The Passion and Crucifixion
Around 30 or 33 CE, Jesus traveled to Jerusalem during the crowded festival of Passover. When he entered the Temple courtyards, he drove out money-changers and animal sellers, crying: "My house shall be called a house of prayer, but you have made it a den of thieves!"
Alarmed by his populist following, the high priestly authorities arrested Jesus and brought him before the Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate, charging him with sedition for claiming to be the "King of the Jews," a title that challenged the sovereignty of the Roman emperor. Pilate sentenced Jesus to execution by crucifixion—a Roman method of punishment reserved for rebels, slaves, and political insurgents. Roman soldiers scourged Jesus, placed a crown of thorns on his head, and nailed him to a wooden cross on the hill of Golgotha outside Jerusalem's walls until he died.
The Resurrection and the Great Commission
According to the Gospels, on the third day following his burial, female followers, including Mary Magdalene, visited the tomb and found the entrance stone rolled away and the tomb empty. Angels announced that Jesus had risen from the dead. Over the following forty days, Jesus appeared to his disciples, commanding them to "Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation." This belief in the physical resurrection of Jesus transformed his despondent disciples into bold missionaries, forming the basis of Christian theology.
The Apostle Paul and the Spread of the Faith
Originally, the followers of Jesus formed a Jewish movement known as "The Way" in Jerusalem, led by Peter and James. The transition of Christianity from a localized Jewish sect into a universal world religion was spearheaded by Saul of Tarsus, later known as the Apostle Paul.
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| THE MISSIONARY JOURNEYS OF PAUL |
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| 1. DAMASCUS ROAD CONVERSION (~35 CE): Saul, a strict Pharisee persecuting|
| early Christians, experiences a blinding vision of the risen Christ. |
| |
| 2. APOSTLE TO THE GENTILES: Paul argues non-Jewish converts (Gentiles) |
| do not need to undergo circumcision or follow kosher dietary laws to |
| become Christians; ratified at the Council of Jerusalem (49 CE). |
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| 3. TRAVELS & EPISTLES: Uses Roman citizenship, Roman roads, and Greek |
| language to plant churches across Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.|
| Writes letters (Romans, Corinthians, Galatians) defining theology. |
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Apostle to the Gentiles
Paul was a Greek-speaking Hellenistic Jew and Roman citizen from Asia Minor. Following a dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus, Paul dedicated his life to preaching that salvation was available to all humanity—not just Jews, but Gentiles (non-Jews). At the Council of Jerusalem (c. 49 CE), early church leaders agreed with Paul's view that Gentile converts were not obligated to follow Jewish ceremonial laws, such as circumcision or strict kosher dietary restrictions.
Paul used his rights as a Roman citizen and the transportation network of the Pax Romana to travel thousands of miles across Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, planting churches and writing pastoral epistles (letters) that comprise a major portion of the New Testament.
Roman Persecution: From Nero to Diocletian
For the first two centuries, the Roman imperial government viewed Christians with suspicion.
Reasons for Roman Persecution
Unlike Judaism, which was an ancient national faith exempt from imperial pagan worship, Christianity was a new movement. Romans viewed Christians with hostility for several reasons:
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| CAUSES OF ROMAN SUSPICION OF CHRISTIANS |
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| 1. REFUSAL OF IMPERIAL CULT | Christians refused to sacrifice |
| | incense to the Emperor's image, |
| | viewed as political treason. |
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| 2. ACCUSATIONS OF "ATHEISM" | Rejected all traditional gods; |
| | Romans blamed Christians when |
| | plagues, famines, or floods hit. |
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| 3. SECRECY & SOCIAL EQUALITY | Held clandestine night meetings; |
| | shared communion (misunderstood |
| | as cannibalism); treated slaves |
| | as spiritual equals to masters. |
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The Persecutions: Nero and the Martyrs
In 64 CE, after a devastating fire consumed two-thirds of Rome, Emperor Nero deflected rumors that he had started the blaze by blaming the Christians. Nero had Christians covered in wild animal skins and torn by hunting dogs, and soaked in pitch to be burned as human torches to illuminate his nocturnal palace gardens. Apostles Peter and Paul were both executed in Rome during this persecution.
Persecutions were initially sporadic and local, but in 250 CE under Emperor Decius, and in 303 CE under Emperor Diocletian ("The Great Persecution"), the imperial government launched empire-wide purges. Diocletian ordered Christian churches demolished, scriptures burned, and Christians stripped of civil rights, thrown to lions in the Colosseum, or beheaded. However, public executions backfired; the courage of Christian martyrs inspired onlookers, leading the early Christian writer Tertullian to observe: "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church."
The Legalization and Triumph of Christianity
The transformation of Christianity from a persecuted faith into the dominant religion of the Roman world was achieved by Emperor Constantine the Great.
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| THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY |
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| 312 CE: BATTLE OF THE MILVIAN BRIDGE |
| Constantine sees a vision of a radiant cross in the sky inscribed: |
| *In Hoc Signo Vinces* ("In this sign, you shall conquer"); paints the |
| Chi-Rho (*XP*) monogram on shields; wins the battle; becomes emperor. |
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| 313 CE: THE EDICT OF MILAN |
| Constantine legalizes Christianity; grants total religious freedom |
| across the Roman Empire; restores confiscated church properties. |
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| 325 CE: THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA |
| First ecumenical council; codifies the Nicene Creed; clarifies dogma. |
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| 380 CE: THE EDICT OF THESSALONICA |
| Emperor Theodosius I outlaws paganism; declares Nicene Christianity |
| the official exclusive state religion of the Roman Empire. |
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The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 CE)
In 312 CE, during a civil war for the imperial throne, Constantine marched on Rome to confront his rival Maxentius. According to contemporary Christian historian Eusebius, on the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine saw a vision of a flaming cross in the sky with the Greek words *En Touto Nika* ("In this sign, conquer"). Constantine ordered his soldiers to paint the Chi-Rho monogram (the first two Greek letters of Christ's name, $X$ and $P$) onto their shields. Constantine won the battle and took control of the Western Roman Empire.
The Edict of Milan (313 CE)
In 313 CE, Constantine and his eastern co-emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious freedom throughout the empire and ending persecutions. Confiscated church lands were returned, Christian clergy were exempted from municipal taxes, and the state subsidized the construction of basilicas, including the original Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
The Council of Nicaea and Official State Religion
In 325 CE, to resolve theological disputes regarding the divine nature of Jesus Christ (specifically the Arian controversy), Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea, the first worldwide gathering of Christian bishops. The council established the Nicene Creed, affirming that Jesus was "of one substance" (homoousios) with God the Father. In 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica, making Nicene Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire and closing pagan temples.
Review Exercises
Exercise 1: Describe the historical and religious climate of first-century Roman Judea, detailing the differences between the Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and Zealots.
Exercise 2: Explain the primary reasons why the Roman imperial government persecuted early Christians, and describe the nature of Nero's persecutions in 64 CE.
Exercise 3: Trace the historical steps that led to the triumph of Christianity in the Roman Empire, focusing on Constantine's conversion and the Edicts of Milan and Thessalonica.
Solutions
Solution 1: In the first century CE, Judea was ruled by Roman governors like Pontius Pilate amid tensions and messianic expectations. The Sadducees were the wealthy priestly aristocracy who cooperated with Roman authorities and managed the Temple. The Pharisees were strict teachers of Mosaic law who emphasized personal piety and believed in a coming Messiah. The Essenes were ascetic monks who retreated into the Qumran desert, while the Zealots were armed revolutionaries dedicated to driving Roman legions out of Judea by force.
Solution 2: The Romans persecuted Christians because Christians refused to worship traditional civic gods or offer incense sacrifices to the Emperor's image, which was viewed as political treason and atheism. Furthermore, Romans suspected Christians because they held clandestine night meetings, admitted slaves and women as equals, and were misunderstood regarding communion. In 64 CE, Emperor Nero used Christians as scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome, executing them in public arenas, having them torn by wild beasts, and burning them as torches in his gardens.
Solution 3: In 312 CE, Constantine credited his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge to the Christian God after painting the Chi-Rho monogram on his army's shields. In 313 CE, he issued the Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity, restoring confiscated property, and granting religious tolerance across the empire. In 325 CE, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea to standardize Christian doctrine into the Nicene Creed, and in 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica, establishing Christianity as the official state religion of Rome.